Discovery of the New WorldNative American tribes lived uninterrupted for thousands of years before the ‘discovery’ of the North American continent by European explorers and colonizers. Many credit Christopher Columbus with the discovery of the ‘New World’ in 1492, claiming the Spanish explorer’s findings lead to the colonization and settlement of the Western hemisphere.
|
A Complex HistoryUnited States and Native American RelationsThe history between Native Americans and the United States is too long to thoroughly and respectfully detail in this project. The relationship between the two is full of mutual disdain and distrust, as well as complex narratives and policies.
Before discussing the impact of boarding schools on Native American communities, it is important to understand the historical events and thought-process behind their assimilation. This section will discuss the events of colonization, the national obsession with cultivation and Christianity, and the beginnings of Native American removal.
“The health of souls be cared for and the barbarous nations be overthrown and brought to the faith itself.” With support from the Pope, the Doctrine of Discovery [Image 3.], issued in 1493, justified the conquest of the New World on religious grounds. [3][4] The Doctrine racialized Native populations, calling them “barbarous,” and claimed a Christian faith would help heal their souls. [5] This racialization of Native peoples would become deeply ingrained in European culture and colonial societies, and eventually seep into American politics.
|
American Colonization
The first American settlers arrived on the eastern shores of the North American continent in 1607, establishing the first colony at Jamestown, Virginia. [6] With a lack of resources and understanding on how to cultivate their new lands, the settlers would rely on the help of the Powhatans tribe to survive. Like Jamestown [Image 5.], the colonial settlements to follow would rely on Native populations for knowledge and survival.
The American holiday ‘Thanksgiving,’ celebrates the fall harvests of the first colonies, marking a shared meal of gratitude between Plymouth Rock settlers and the Wampanoag tribe who helped them survive [Image 4.]. This holiday, including Columbus Day, are controversial as they perpetuate a narrative that does not account for the mistreatment and violence towards Native peoples by explorers and settlers.
However, the public memory of these holidays erases the experiences and histories of America’s Indigenous peoples, and encourages us to categorize Native populations during colonization as either kind to settlers, or ‘savage.’
|
Despite the perceived goodwill of the Thanksgiving meal, the relationship between the colonies and Natives was strained, with the newcomers denying the existence of Native American ways of life. [7] Settlers favored their own ways over that of Natives, and constructed societies that “recreated the world they had known.” [8] This creation put an emphasis on Christian and agricultural customs, and classified Natives as ‘others’ and ‘inferior,’ due to their lack of these shared values. [9]
|
Natives and the New NationAlthough relations between Natives and settlers continued to deteriorate, the newly-independent United States would pass federal legislation during its infancy that would try to protect Native Americans from the country’s growth. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 [Image 6.] established an “orderly manner” for settlement and expansion, and pledged to treat Native Americans with “the utmost good faith,” promising their “lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent.” [11]
Despite its passing, the Northwest Ordinance was never fully accepted by White society, as many settlers and farmers continued to take Native lands through violence and coercion, a direct violation of the legislation’s ‘good faith.’
|
“The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent” |
Manifest Destiny and Western ExpansionIn the years following its independence, the United States would grow exponentially, and soon abandon its promise to protect Native lands and peoples. Much of the nation’s population would begin favoring policies of western expansion and economic profits, as the ideals of farming and cultivation from colonial society were still be deeply embedded in American culture and identity.
The national desires for expansion and agriculture growth strongly influenced a new era of government policies and actions towards Native Americans. These policies continually pushed Natives off their ancestral lands [Map 1., Map 2., Map 3.], and required their assimilation and conformity to White customs.
|
The term ‘Manifest Density’ became the embodiment of American expansionism. First used by John O’Sullivan in the New York Morning News on December 27, 1845, the phrase justified the taking of land as “destined by God,” claiming it was Christian-Americans ‘God-given’ right to “expand across the North American continent.” [12] Those who interfered with this destiny, or misused highly coveted land – like Native Americans – were to be removed and disciplined.
Andrew Jackson and Indian RemovalThe continued belief that Native Americans were inferior “made it easier to physically dispossess them” through violence, treaties and legislative actions. [14] The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was the beginning of the government’s physical removal of Native Americans from lands ‘destined’ and desired by Whites.
The Indian Removal Act “marginalized American Indians while simultaneously propelling White society to the dominant culture and political position” – Historian Elise Helgesen [13] Proposed by President Andrew Jackson, the Indian Removal Act was the first of many government actions that forced Native tribes off their lands. Like various politicians and civilians, President Jackson believed that “Whites were entitled to any land they wished,” justifying the removal of Native Americans on their failure to cultivate valuable land properly. [15]
|
The Trail of Tears and Cherokee RemovalThe Indian Removal Act would be the political start to a century filled with violence, murder, and destruction towards Native Americans peoples and communities.
|
The 1830 legislation removed the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Seminole nations to lands west of the Mississippi River [Map 4.]. [16] The journey to new designated ‘Indian Territory’ [Map 5.] was a grueling process that took years, with many tribes refusing to leave, only doing so after the threat of violence by the government and Army.
The experience of the Cherokee is unique, as the tribe was fully assimilated to White ways of life, practicing ‘proper’ forms of cultivation, converting to Christianity, and dressing in White clothing. However, despite these adoptions of American culture, the Cherokee were still categorized as Native and would be forcibly removed from their lands.
The removal of the Cherokee during the winter of 1838, an event known as the Trail of Tears [Image 10.], resulted in the deaths of nearly 12,000 Cherokee – of the 16,000 forcibly removed, only 4,000 survived the journey to ‘Indian Country’. [17]
|
The Indian Wars and
|
With an increase in land loss and the continued encroachment of White society, some Native populations fought back against removal, killing settlers and using violence against the Army and government agents sent to facilitate and force removal. The United States justified its own use of violence towards Natives peoples as a means of protecting its citizens from savage populations who threatened White livelihoods and national progress. Although some tribes retaliated, many attacks on Native communities were unprovoked and against peaceful and cooperative tribes.
According to the definition of genocide, were the actions of the United States during the Indian Wars genocidal? Did the United States deliberately target and kill Native American populations based on their racial or cultural identity?
|
Were the actions of Indian Removal genocidal? Were the actions of colonization genocidal? Did the United States deliberately target and kill Native American populations based on their racial or cultural identity?
|
A Shift in Native PolicyFollowing the end of the Civil War in 1865, the United States “was tired of war and dismay.” [18] Desiring an end to the continued conflict with Native populations and to the financial burden of war, the United States began shifting its approach towards eliminating Native Americans in different ways, working to eradicate the population without violence. The government would soon undertake “a new means of warfare, disguised as a humanitarian alternative” – the killing of Native culture and identity without bullets. [19]
|
Although the United States could have continued to wage war against Native populations, policymakers realized the complete physical elimination of Native Americans was not feasible. Government policies would shift from outright violence towards Native populations, to forced cultural assimilation aimed at killing the ‘savage’ aspects and identities of Native peoples.
Through assimilationist policies, the United States would eliminate the savagery of Native identity through methods of forced removal, the denial of culture and heritage, and forced integration and acceptance of White society. The creation and implementation of Native American boarding schools would be the humanitarian alternative to the physical killing of Natives, as these educational institutions would eliminate and eradicate the customs, cultures and identities that made these populations ‘savage.’
Page Citations:
[1] Pope Alexander VI. 4 May 1493. The Gilder Lehrman Collection, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, New York. Accessed September 2016. https://www. gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/imperial-rivalries/resources/doctrine-discovery-1493.
[2] James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer. “From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americans.” American Behavioral Scientist 58, 1 (2014): 5.
[3] James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer. American Behavioral Scientist 58, 1 (2014): 5.
[4] Pope Alexander VI. 4 May 1493. The Gilder Lehrman Collection, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, New York.
[5] Pope Alexander VI. 4 May 1493. The Gilder Lehrman Collection, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, New York.
[6] The Library of Congress. “Colonial American (1492-1763).” The American Story from America’s Library. Accessed November 2016. http://www.americaslibrary.gov/ jb/colonial/jb_colonial_subj.html.
[7] James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer. American Behavioral Scientist 58, 1 (2014): 7.
[8] James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer. American Behavioral Scientist 58, 1 (2014): 6.
[9] Heather Winlow. “Strangers on their own land:” Ideology, Policy and Rational Landscapes in the United States, 1825-1934.” Cartographic 48, 1 (2013): 49.
[10] The United States Government. “Northwest Ordinance (1787).” OurDocumnets.gov. Accessed October 2016. http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=8.
[11] The United States Government. “Northwest Ordinance (1787).” OurDocumnets.gov.
[12] Amy Lonetree. “American Indian Boarding Schools: An Exploration of Global Ethnic and Cultural Cleansing.” Ziibiwing Center of Anishinabee Culture and Lifeways (2011): 2.
[13] Heather Winlow. Cartographic 48, 1 (2013): 51.
[14] Elisa Helgensen. “Allotment of Justice” How U.S. Policy in Indian Country Perpetuates the Victimization of American Indians.” University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 446.
[15] Elisa Helgensen. University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 446.
[16] Claire Palmiste. “Forcible Removals: The Case of Australian Aboriginal and Native American Children.” AlterNATIVE 4, 2 (2008): 78.
[17] Heather Winlow. Cartographic 48, 1 (2013): 52.
[18] Ann Piccard, “Death by Boarding School: “The Last Acceptable Racism” and the United States’ Genocide of Native Americans.” Gonzaga Law Review 49, 1 (December 2013): 152.
[19] Victoria Haskins, and Margaret D. Jacobs. “Stolen Generation and Vanishing Indians: The Removal of Indigenous Children as a Weapon of War in the United States and Australia, 1870-1940.” Excerpt from Children and War: A Historical Anthology. New York University Press, New York (2002): 238.
[1] Pope Alexander VI. 4 May 1493. The Gilder Lehrman Collection, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, New York. Accessed September 2016. https://www. gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/imperial-rivalries/resources/doctrine-discovery-1493.
[2] James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer. “From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americans.” American Behavioral Scientist 58, 1 (2014): 5.
[3] James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer. American Behavioral Scientist 58, 1 (2014): 5.
[4] Pope Alexander VI. 4 May 1493. The Gilder Lehrman Collection, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, New York.
[5] Pope Alexander VI. 4 May 1493. The Gilder Lehrman Collection, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, New York.
[6] The Library of Congress. “Colonial American (1492-1763).” The American Story from America’s Library. Accessed November 2016. http://www.americaslibrary.gov/ jb/colonial/jb_colonial_subj.html.
[7] James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer. American Behavioral Scientist 58, 1 (2014): 7.
[8] James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer. American Behavioral Scientist 58, 1 (2014): 6.
[9] Heather Winlow. “Strangers on their own land:” Ideology, Policy and Rational Landscapes in the United States, 1825-1934.” Cartographic 48, 1 (2013): 49.
[10] The United States Government. “Northwest Ordinance (1787).” OurDocumnets.gov. Accessed October 2016. http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=8.
[11] The United States Government. “Northwest Ordinance (1787).” OurDocumnets.gov.
[12] Amy Lonetree. “American Indian Boarding Schools: An Exploration of Global Ethnic and Cultural Cleansing.” Ziibiwing Center of Anishinabee Culture and Lifeways (2011): 2.
[13] Heather Winlow. Cartographic 48, 1 (2013): 51.
[14] Elisa Helgensen. “Allotment of Justice” How U.S. Policy in Indian Country Perpetuates the Victimization of American Indians.” University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 446.
[15] Elisa Helgensen. University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 446.
[16] Claire Palmiste. “Forcible Removals: The Case of Australian Aboriginal and Native American Children.” AlterNATIVE 4, 2 (2008): 78.
[17] Heather Winlow. Cartographic 48, 1 (2013): 52.
[18] Ann Piccard, “Death by Boarding School: “The Last Acceptable Racism” and the United States’ Genocide of Native Americans.” Gonzaga Law Review 49, 1 (December 2013): 152.
[19] Victoria Haskins, and Margaret D. Jacobs. “Stolen Generation and Vanishing Indians: The Removal of Indigenous Children as a Weapon of War in the United States and Australia, 1870-1940.” Excerpt from Children and War: A Historical Anthology. New York University Press, New York (2002): 238.
Photo Citations:
[Image 1.] Illustration titled Enlightened and Christian Welfare in the 19th Century – Massacre of Indian Women and Children in Idaho published in Frank Leslie’s Illustrated, August 1868. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
[Image 2.] Portrait of Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus by Sebastiano del Piombo, 1518. Metropolitan Museum of Art Online Collection, New York City.
[Image 3.] Pope Alexander VI’s Demarcation Bull, May 4, 1493. The Gilder Lehram Collection, New York City. GLC04093.
[Image 4.] Painting titled The First Thanksgiving 1621 by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, 1932. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
[Image 5.] Painting titled Jamestown About 1614 by Sidney E. King, 1956. National Park Service Colonial National Historical Park Virginia.
[Image 6.] Northwest Ordinance, July 13, 1787. Records of the Continental and Confederation Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, 1774-1789. National Archive, Washington, D.C.
[Image 7.] Painting titled American Progress by John Gast, 1871. Museum of the American West, Griffith Park, Louisiana.
[Map 1.] Indian Country Today Media Network Staff, “Animated Map Shows Loss of Western Tribal Lands from 1784,” Indian Country Today Media Network, July 21, 2012.
[Map 2.] Indian Country Today Media Network Staff, “Animated Map Shows Loss of Western Tribal Lands from 1784,” Indian Country Today Media Network, July 21, 2012.
[Map 3.] Indian Country Today Media Network Staff, “Animated Map Shows Loss of Western Tribal Lands from 1784,” Indian Country Today Media Network, July 21, 2012.
[Map 4.] Map of Indian Removal Routes by Caryl-Sue, 2014. National Geographic Society.
[Image 8.] Portrait of Andrew Jackson by Ralph E.W. Earl, 1835. Official Portraits of the U.S. Presidents. White House Historical Association, Washington, D.C.
[Image 9.] Signature of Andrew Jackson. Digitized by Connormah, 2009. Wikimedia Commons.
[Map 5.] Map titled Map Showing the Lands Assigned to Emigrant Indians West of Arkansas and Missouri by United States Topographical Bureau, 1836. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
[Image 10.] Painting titled The Trail of Tears by Robert Ottakar Lindneux, 1942. Woolaroc Museum, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
[Image 11.] Drawing titled Battle of Greasy Grass by Bad Heart Buffalo, Ogala Lakota, undated. History.com, unknown archive.
[Image 12.] Photograph titled The Vanishing Race by Edward S. Curtis, 1904. National Anthropological Archives. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
[Image 1.] Illustration titled Enlightened and Christian Welfare in the 19th Century – Massacre of Indian Women and Children in Idaho published in Frank Leslie’s Illustrated, August 1868. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
[Image 2.] Portrait of Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus by Sebastiano del Piombo, 1518. Metropolitan Museum of Art Online Collection, New York City.
[Image 3.] Pope Alexander VI’s Demarcation Bull, May 4, 1493. The Gilder Lehram Collection, New York City. GLC04093.
[Image 4.] Painting titled The First Thanksgiving 1621 by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, 1932. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
[Image 5.] Painting titled Jamestown About 1614 by Sidney E. King, 1956. National Park Service Colonial National Historical Park Virginia.
[Image 6.] Northwest Ordinance, July 13, 1787. Records of the Continental and Confederation Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, 1774-1789. National Archive, Washington, D.C.
[Image 7.] Painting titled American Progress by John Gast, 1871. Museum of the American West, Griffith Park, Louisiana.
[Map 1.] Indian Country Today Media Network Staff, “Animated Map Shows Loss of Western Tribal Lands from 1784,” Indian Country Today Media Network, July 21, 2012.
[Map 2.] Indian Country Today Media Network Staff, “Animated Map Shows Loss of Western Tribal Lands from 1784,” Indian Country Today Media Network, July 21, 2012.
[Map 3.] Indian Country Today Media Network Staff, “Animated Map Shows Loss of Western Tribal Lands from 1784,” Indian Country Today Media Network, July 21, 2012.
[Map 4.] Map of Indian Removal Routes by Caryl-Sue, 2014. National Geographic Society.
[Image 8.] Portrait of Andrew Jackson by Ralph E.W. Earl, 1835. Official Portraits of the U.S. Presidents. White House Historical Association, Washington, D.C.
[Image 9.] Signature of Andrew Jackson. Digitized by Connormah, 2009. Wikimedia Commons.
[Map 5.] Map titled Map Showing the Lands Assigned to Emigrant Indians West of Arkansas and Missouri by United States Topographical Bureau, 1836. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
[Image 10.] Painting titled The Trail of Tears by Robert Ottakar Lindneux, 1942. Woolaroc Museum, Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
[Image 11.] Drawing titled Battle of Greasy Grass by Bad Heart Buffalo, Ogala Lakota, undated. History.com, unknown archive.
[Image 12.] Photograph titled The Vanishing Race by Edward S. Curtis, 1904. National Anthropological Archives. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.