Life for Native CommunitiesThere are currently 567 federally recognized tribes in the United States [Map 1.], each of which has its own unique and distinct history, languages and customs. [1]
As mentioned throughout this project, life for Native American communities has not been easy, as racialized beliefs still plague the population in the present-day. Once called ‘savages’ and deemed ‘inferior’ by White society, Native Americans are now portrayed as mascots or lazy alcoholics, who live on reservations that resemble “Third World” countries, or are too rich for their own good because of tribal owned casinos and gambling operations. [2]
Despite a long and interconnected history between Native Americans and the United States, White dominate culture continues to have little connection or understanding of Native peoples and their plight. White society uses these stereotypes, caricatures and schemas as a way to continually portray the diverse and multicultural population as a single, racialized entity.
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Indian Country TodayThe Continued Trauma of Boarding Schools
Although many federally funded boarding schools closed their doors in the years following the Meriam Report due to a divestment in Indian education, some schools – such as the Pipestone Indian School in Minnesota, which closed in 1953 – would remain open until the end of the 20th century. However, no matter the length of operation, boarding schools and their facilitation of cultural loss would have reverberating effects on Native American communities for centuries.
This section will discuss the present-day conditions of Native American communities and their connection to the lingering effects of assimilationist policies. This section will also examine how the trauma of boarding schools continues to manifest within Native populations through the intergenerational experience of Historical Trauma (HT) and widespread disparities.
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2010 Census data reports that about 5.2 million, or 1.7%, of the population of the United States identifies as ‘American Indian/Alaska Native.’ [3] Despite repeated attempts to eliminate and eradicate this ‘problem’ population, Native Americans have survived.
However, despite some strides in their relationship with government, Native communities continue to be excluded from laws and policies that pertain to their lands, jurisdiction and rights. Native American communities continue to be plagued by economic, social and health disparities at rates higher than any other population or ethnic group in the United States.
Historical TraumaWhile many present-day Native Americans never experienced the widespread abuse and mistreatment of boarding schools, “Indians born [today]… have been raised in a home where the effects of these schools are still very present.” [4]
“Government boarding schools [have] become a part of our collective, pan-Indian identity… for better or worse, schools became part of our histories.” – Historian Brenda Child, Ojibwe [5] Many Native American communities and families experience a phenomenon called Historical Trauma. This psychological term, sometime called ‘intergenerational trauma’ or “soul wounds,” is a result of the physical and psychological distress caused by “widespread death from war and disease,” removal from ancestral lands, and the confiscation of children from families and communities for assimilationist purposes. [6]
Psychologists and historians equate the immense loss of culture and self-identity experienced by boarding school attendees and their communities as a form of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). When applied to historical events, PTSD is referred to as Historical Trauma (HT).
For many families, tribes and students, “the removal and abuse experienced” at boarding schools have caused lingering trauma that is exhibited through generational depression and anxiety, “rampant alcoholism, drug abuse and domestic violence.” [8] These outward manifestations of Historical Trauma are a direct correlation to the continued effects and disparities caused by assimilationist policies and government actions targeting the Native American population.
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“The injuries inflicted by the Indian boarding schools are continuous and ongoing.” The goal of Native American boarding schools was to “Kill the Indian” and “Save the Man,” however, these institutes have left that ‘man’ broken. |
Native American scholar Lisa Grayshield’s work focuses on the trauma of assimilation and the mental health disparities that stem from the experiences of students and families directly affected by Native American boarding schools. Grayshield’s research discusses how the physical and psychological abuse experienced at these institutions has been “passed from one generation to the next,” with “unresolved” feelings of abandonment, isolation and anger “impacting the lives of [both] survivors and their kin.” [9] These reverberating feelings have created a cycle of continued trauma, abuse and addiction that has harmed the resolve and livelihood of Native communities.
Other scholars, such as psychologist and addiction specialist Dr. Anthony Dekker, equate the manifestation of mental health issues associated with Historical Trauma – such as alcoholism and substance abuse – as a coping mechanism that seeps into both the daily lives and genetic makeup of afflicted populations. Dekker says “chaotic family lives, suicide, mental illness, addiction, domestic violence,” incarceration and physical and sexual abuse have become the norm for Native Americans communities due to the continuation of unresolved trauma, proper acknowledge of past atrocities, and ineffective mental health counseling. [10]
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The ‘soul wounds’ of boarding schools and assimilationist policies have embedded themselves in Native American communities in a variety of ways, including high rates of depression, suicide, substance abuse and violence.
Although violent crime and mental health issues in “Indian Country today [are] a result of a complex social, economic and political factors,” it is hard to argue that these issues stem from events or experiences other than the continued trauma caused by the United States government and its actions. [11]
Depending on the source, statistics may differ, but it is easy to see the disparities that plague Native Americans communities:
- Native Americans are 510% more likely to die from alcoholism than other American [Graphic 1.] [12]
A trend linked to poverty, unemployment, substance abuse and the experience of trauma. - Native Americans are 82% more likely to die from suicide than other American [Graphic 3] [13]
- Native Americans are more likely than any other racial group to be a victim of a violent crime [15]
- Over 28% of Native Americans live below the poverty line – that is a family of four earning less than $24,300 a year [Graphic 2.] [18][19]
- In 2010, only 51% of Native American seniors in high school graduated [21]
A trend linked to a lack of education, poverty, and violence. - Depending on the reservation, 4 to 8 out of every 10 Native American adults is unemployed [22]
A trend linked to a lack of education, poverty and substance abuse. |
The Impact of Trauma |
Page Citations:
[1] Bureau of Indian Affairs. “Indian Affairs – Who We Are.” Accessed November 2016. http://bia.gov/WhoWeAre/.
[2] Ward Churchill. Kill the Indian, Save the Man: The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools. (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2004): 11.
[3] U.S. Census Bureau. “The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010.” Accessed November 2016. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010 /briefs/c2010br-10.pdf.
[4] Ann Piccard, “Death by Boarding School: “The Last Acceptable Racism” and the United States’ Genocide of Native Americans.” Gonzaga Law Review 49, 1 (December 2013): 163.
[5] Julie Davis. “American Indian Boarding School Experiences: Recent Studies from Native Perspective.” OAH Maganize of History 15, 2 (Winter 2001): 21.
[6] Joaqulin Estus, “Historical Trauma Affects Mental Health of Today’s Native American,” KNBA Broadcasting, Alaska, March 30, 2015. Accessed November 2016. http://knba.org/post/33015-historical-trauma-affects-mental-health-todays-native-american.
[7] Ann Piccard. Gonzaga Law Review 49, 1 (December 2013): 161.
[8] Ann Piccard. Gonzaga Law Review 49, 1 (December 2013): 152.
[9] Lisa Grayshield, et al. “Understanding and Healing Historical Trauma: The Perspectives of Native American Elders.” Journal of Mental Health Counseling 37, 4 (2015): 296.
[10] Christine Vestal, “Fighting Opiod Abuse in Indian Country,” Tucson Sentinel, December 13, 2016. Accessed December 2016. http://www.tucsonsentinel.com/ nationworld/report/121316 _tribes_opiods/fighting-opioid-abuse-indian-country/.
[11] Elisa Helgensen. “Allotment of Justice” How U.S. Policy in Indian Country Perpetuates the Victimization of American Indians.” University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 447.
[12] National Congress of American Indians. “Demographics.” Accessed November 2016. http://www.ncai.org/about-tribes/demographics.
[13] Native American Aid. “Native American Living Conditions on Reservations.” Native American Aid 2015. Accessed November 2016. http://www.nrcprograms. org/site/PageServer? pagename=naa_livingconditions.
[14] National Congress of American Indians. “Demographics.”
[15] Elisa Helgensen. University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 446.
[16] National Congress of American Indians. “Demographics.”
[17] Elisa Helgensen. University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 442.
[18] Native American Aid. “Native American Living Conditions on Reservations.”
[19] Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. “Poverty Guidelines.” ASPE. 2016. Accessed November 2016. https://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty-guidelines.
[20] Julian Brave Noisecat. “13 Issues Facing Native People Beyond Mascots and Casinos…” Huffington Post. July 30, 2015. Accessed November 2016. http://www. huffingtonpost. com/entry /13-native american-issues_us_55b7d801e4b0074ba5a6869c.
[21] Julian Brave Noisecat. “13 Issues Facing Native People Beyond Mascots and Casinos…” Huffington Post. July 30, 2015.
[22] Native American Aid. “Native American Living Conditions on Reservations.”
[1] Bureau of Indian Affairs. “Indian Affairs – Who We Are.” Accessed November 2016. http://bia.gov/WhoWeAre/.
[2] Ward Churchill. Kill the Indian, Save the Man: The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools. (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2004): 11.
[3] U.S. Census Bureau. “The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010.” Accessed November 2016. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010 /briefs/c2010br-10.pdf.
[4] Ann Piccard, “Death by Boarding School: “The Last Acceptable Racism” and the United States’ Genocide of Native Americans.” Gonzaga Law Review 49, 1 (December 2013): 163.
[5] Julie Davis. “American Indian Boarding School Experiences: Recent Studies from Native Perspective.” OAH Maganize of History 15, 2 (Winter 2001): 21.
[6] Joaqulin Estus, “Historical Trauma Affects Mental Health of Today’s Native American,” KNBA Broadcasting, Alaska, March 30, 2015. Accessed November 2016. http://knba.org/post/33015-historical-trauma-affects-mental-health-todays-native-american.
[7] Ann Piccard. Gonzaga Law Review 49, 1 (December 2013): 161.
[8] Ann Piccard. Gonzaga Law Review 49, 1 (December 2013): 152.
[9] Lisa Grayshield, et al. “Understanding and Healing Historical Trauma: The Perspectives of Native American Elders.” Journal of Mental Health Counseling 37, 4 (2015): 296.
[10] Christine Vestal, “Fighting Opiod Abuse in Indian Country,” Tucson Sentinel, December 13, 2016. Accessed December 2016. http://www.tucsonsentinel.com/ nationworld/report/121316 _tribes_opiods/fighting-opioid-abuse-indian-country/.
[11] Elisa Helgensen. “Allotment of Justice” How U.S. Policy in Indian Country Perpetuates the Victimization of American Indians.” University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 447.
[12] National Congress of American Indians. “Demographics.” Accessed November 2016. http://www.ncai.org/about-tribes/demographics.
[13] Native American Aid. “Native American Living Conditions on Reservations.” Native American Aid 2015. Accessed November 2016. http://www.nrcprograms. org/site/PageServer? pagename=naa_livingconditions.
[14] National Congress of American Indians. “Demographics.”
[15] Elisa Helgensen. University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 446.
[16] National Congress of American Indians. “Demographics.”
[17] Elisa Helgensen. University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy 22 (2011): 442.
[18] Native American Aid. “Native American Living Conditions on Reservations.”
[19] Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. “Poverty Guidelines.” ASPE. 2016. Accessed November 2016. https://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty-guidelines.
[20] Julian Brave Noisecat. “13 Issues Facing Native People Beyond Mascots and Casinos…” Huffington Post. July 30, 2015. Accessed November 2016. http://www. huffingtonpost. com/entry /13-native american-issues_us_55b7d801e4b0074ba5a6869c.
[21] Julian Brave Noisecat. “13 Issues Facing Native People Beyond Mascots and Casinos…” Huffington Post. July 30, 2015.
[22] Native American Aid. “Native American Living Conditions on Reservations.”
Photo Citations:
[Image 1.] Photograph of Kennedi Decorah rides her bike in front of a neighbor’s house in Oglala on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in southwestern South Dakota on January 10, 2006 by unknown, 2006. Indian Country Media Network.
[Image 2.] Photograph of Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota by Indian Country Media Network, 2011.
[Map 1.] Map titled U.S. Federal and State Indian Reservation by infoplease.com, 2016.
[Image 3.] Photograph of children on Native American Reservation by unknown, undated.
[Image 4.] Photograph of family walking along road on To’hajiilee Reservation in New Mexico by John Makely, 2014.
[Image 5.] Photograph of boarded up house on Wind River Reservation in Wyoming by Robert Johnson, 2013.
[Graphic 1.] Table titled Percentage of Americans suffering from alcohol abuse or alcoholism in their lifetime data collected by the American Medical Association and Associated Press.
[Graphic 2.] Table titled American Indians and Alaska Natives experience the highest rate of poverty in the country data collected by U.S. Census Bureau, 2007-2012.
[Graphic 3.] Table titled Native Young Adults Are At the Greatest Risk data collected by Centers for Disease Control and the Huffington Post, 2015.
[Image 6.] Photograph of housing on Wind River Reservation in Wyoming by Robert Johnson, 2013.
[Image 7.] Photograph of unemployment and alcoholism and Native American Reservation by unknown, undated.
[Image 8.] Photograph of houses on the Navajo Indian Reservation in Arizona by David McNew, undated. Getty Images.
[Image 1.] Photograph of Kennedi Decorah rides her bike in front of a neighbor’s house in Oglala on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in southwestern South Dakota on January 10, 2006 by unknown, 2006. Indian Country Media Network.
[Image 2.] Photograph of Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota by Indian Country Media Network, 2011.
[Map 1.] Map titled U.S. Federal and State Indian Reservation by infoplease.com, 2016.
[Image 3.] Photograph of children on Native American Reservation by unknown, undated.
[Image 4.] Photograph of family walking along road on To’hajiilee Reservation in New Mexico by John Makely, 2014.
[Image 5.] Photograph of boarded up house on Wind River Reservation in Wyoming by Robert Johnson, 2013.
[Graphic 1.] Table titled Percentage of Americans suffering from alcohol abuse or alcoholism in their lifetime data collected by the American Medical Association and Associated Press.
[Graphic 2.] Table titled American Indians and Alaska Natives experience the highest rate of poverty in the country data collected by U.S. Census Bureau, 2007-2012.
[Graphic 3.] Table titled Native Young Adults Are At the Greatest Risk data collected by Centers for Disease Control and the Huffington Post, 2015.
[Image 6.] Photograph of housing on Wind River Reservation in Wyoming by Robert Johnson, 2013.
[Image 7.] Photograph of unemployment and alcoholism and Native American Reservation by unknown, undated.
[Image 8.] Photograph of houses on the Navajo Indian Reservation in Arizona by David McNew, undated. Getty Images.